Membrane Potentials

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  Subject Areas on Research

  • (-)-(9S)-9-(3-Bromo-4-fluorophenyl)-2,3,5,6,7,9-hexahydrothieno[3,2-b]quinolin-8(4H)-one 1,1-dioxide (A-278637): a novel ATP-sensitive potassium channel opener efficacious in suppressing urinary bladder contractions. I. In vitro characterization. 
  • A CACNA1C variant associated with reduced voltage-dependent inactivation, increased CaV1.2 channel window current, and arrhythmogenesis. 
  • A calcium-activated, nonselective cationic conductance in Aplysia silent neurons. 
  • A charged residue in S4 regulates coupling among the activation gate, voltage, and Ca2+ sensors in BK channels. 
  • A circuit model for saccadic suppression in the superior colliculus. 
  • A comparison of chemical and electrical synaptic transmission between single sensory cells and a motoneurone in the central nervous system of the leech. 
  • A computer model of electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves in regional anesthesia. 
  • A cyclic-AMP-gated conductance in cochlear hair cells. 
  • A functional correlate of severity in alternating hemiplegia of childhood. 
  • A mathematical model of the myogenic response to systolic pressure in the afferent arteriole. 
  • A model of status epilepticus based on electrical stimulation of hippocampal afferent pathways. 
  • A non-pungent resiniferatoxin analogue, phorbol 12-phenylacetate 13 acetate 20-homovanillate, reveals vanilloid receptor subtypes on rat trigeminal ganglion neurons. 
  • A novel NaV1.5 voltage sensor mutation associated with severe atrial and ventricular arrhythmias. 
  • A novel basal promoter element is required for expression of the rat tyrosine hydroxylase gene. 
  • A novel chloride channel in Vicia faba guard cell vacuoles activated by the serine/threonine kinase, CDPK. 
  • A novel role for primary cilia in airway remodeling. 
  • A novel, calcium-induced triphasic current response in silent, non-bursting Aplysia neurons. 
  • A numerical scheme for modeling wavefront propagation on a monolayer of arbitrary geometry. 
  • A prototype inverse solution in one-dimension to find the origin of excitation, strand radius, intracellular resistivity, or distance from the surface. 
  • A rapid capsaicin-activated current in rat trigeminal ganglion neurons. 
  • A role for TREK1 in generating the slow afterhyperpolarization in developing starburst amacrine cells. 
  • A source of bias in the analysis of single channel data: assessing the apparent interaction between channel proteins. 
  • A theoretical analysis of acute ischemia and infarction using ECG reconstruction on a 2-D model of myocardium. 
  • A whole-cell and single-channel study of the voltage-dependent outward potassium current in avian hepatocytes. 
  • Ability of epinephrine, but not increased extracellular calcium, to reverse the effects of verapamil on ventricular automaticity in vitro. 
  • Abnormal neuronal excitability in hippocampal slices from kindled rats. 
  • Abscisic acid activation of plasma membrane Ca(2+) channels in guard cells requires cytosolic NAD(P)H and is differentially disrupted upstream and downstream of reactive oxygen species production in abi1-1 and abi2-1 protein phosphatase 2C mutants. 
  • Acceleration of functional reentry by rapid pacing in anisotropic cardiac monolayers: formation of multi-wave functional reentries. 
  • Accessory subunit KChIP2 modulates the cardiac L-type calcium current. 
  • Activation during ventricular defibrillation in open-chest dogs. Evidence of complete cessation and regeneration of ventricular fibrillation after unsuccessful shocks. 
  • Activation of calcium channels by cAMP in STC-1 cells is dependent upon Ca2+ calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II. 
  • Activation of delta opioid receptors induces receptor insertion and neuropeptide secretion. 
  • Activation of human granulocytes by arachidonic acid: its use and limitations for investigating granulocyte functions. 
  • Active response of a one-dimensional cardiac model with gap junctions to extracellular stimulation. 
  • Activity-dependent expression of RNA binding protein HuD and its association with mRNAs in neurons. 
  • Adaptive Mesh Refinement and Adaptive Time Integration for Electrical Wave Propagation on the Purkinje System. 
  • Age-dependent inhibition of long-term potentiation by ethanol in immature versus mature hippocampus. 
  • Allopregnanolone attenuates N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced excitotoxicity and apoptosis in the human NT2 cell line in culture. 
  • Alteration in the sensitivity of GABA(A) receptors to allosteric modulatory drugs in rat hippocampus after chronic intermittent ethanol treatment. 
  • Altered cocaine potency in the nucleus accumbens following 7-day withdrawal from intermittent but not continuous treatment: voltammetric assessment of dopamine uptake in the rat. 
  • Aminopyridines and sparteine as inhibitors of membrane potassium conductance: effects on Myxicola giant axons and the lobster neuromuscular junction. 
  • An epilepsy/dyskinesia-associated mutation enhances BK channel activation by potentiating Ca2+ sensing. 
  • An integrative model of mouse cardiac electrophysiology from cell to torso. 
  • Anaesthetic action of magnesium ions. 
  • Analysis of the cyclic nucleotide binding domain of the HERG potassium channel and interactions with KCNE2. 
  • Analytical model of extracellular potentials in a tissue slab with a finite bath. 
  • Analytical solution for time-dependent potentials in a fiber stimulated by an external electrode. 
  • Antiarrhythmic drug action. Blockade of the inward sodium current. 
  • Antidromic propagation of action potentials in branched axons: implications for the mechanisms of action of deep brain stimulation. 
  • Antihistamine mepyramine directly inhibits KCNQ/M channel and depolarizes rat superior cervical ganglion neurons. 
  • Antiproliferative activity and apoptosis-inducing mechanism of Concanavalin A on human melanoma A375 cells. 
  • Aspects of rate-related hyperpolarization in feline Purkinje fibers. 
  • Asymmetrical electrically induced injury of rabbit ventricular myocytes. 
  • Asymptotic model of electrical stimulation of nerve fibers. 
  • Atomic distance estimates from disulfides and high-affinity metal-binding sites in a K+ channel pore. 
  • Auditory plasticity in a basal ganglia-forebrain pathway during decrystallization of adult birdsong. 
  • Autoregulation and conduction of vasomotor responses in a mathematical model of the rat afferent arteriole. 
  • BDNF profoundly and specifically increases KCNQ4 expression in neurons derived from embryonic stem cells. 
  • Barbiturate enhancement of spike frequency adaptation in Aplysia giant neurons. 
  • Barbiturate-induced slow outward currents in Aplysia neurones. 
  • Basic concepts in cellular cardiac electrophysiology: Part I: Ion channels, membrane currents, and the action potential. 
  • Biochemical and biophysical identification of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator chloride channels as components of endocytic clathrin-coated vesicles. 
  • Bioelectrorheological model of the cell. 5. Electrodestruction of cellular membrane in alternating electric field. 
  • Bioenergetic analysis of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivators 1alpha and 1beta (PGC-1alpha and PGC-1beta) in muscle cells. 
  • Bipolar stimulation of a three-dimensional bidomain incorporating rotational anisotropy. 
  • Block of wild-type and inactivation-deficient cardiac sodium channels IFM/QQQ stably expressed in mammalian cells. 
  • Blockade of cardiac sodium channels. Competition between the permeant ion and antiarrhythmic drugs. 
  • Blockade of rabbit atrial sodium channels by lidocaine. Characterization of continuous and frequency-dependent blocking. 
  • Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) regulates cardiac sodium channel NaV1.5 gating by multiple phosphorylation sites. 
  • Calcium channel function regulated by the SH3-GK module in beta subunits. 
  • Calcium requirements for secretion in bovine chromaffin cells. 
  • Calcium sensitive non-selective cation current promotes seizure-like discharges and spreading depression in a model neuron. 
  • Calcium, magnesium, and long-term recovery from hypoxia in hippocampal tissue slices. 
  • Calcium-activated inward spike after-currents in bursting neurone R15 of Aplysia. 
  • Capsaicin, acid and heat-evoked currents in rat trigeminal ganglion neurons: relationship to functional VR1 receptors. 
  • Capsaicin-induced currents with distinct desensitization and Ca2+ dependence in rat trigeminal ganglion cells. 
  • Cardiac fibroblast paracrine factors alter impulse conduction and ion channel expression of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. 
  • Cell penetration properties of maurocalcine, a natural venom peptide active on the intracellular ryanodine receptor. 
  • Cell size and communication: role in structural and electrical development and remodeling of the heart. 
  • Cellular and Synaptic Properties of Local Inhibitory Circuits. 
  • Cellular effects of deep brain stimulation: model-based analysis of activation and inhibition. 
  • Changes in osmolality sensitize the response to capsaicin in trigeminal sensory neurons. 
  • Changes in synaptic transmission produced by hydrogen peroxide. 
  • Channel shutdown: a response of hippocampal neurons to adverse environments. 
  • Characterization of ATP-sensitive potassium channels in intestinal, cholecystokinin-secreting cells. 
  • Characterization of concentration- and use-dependent effects of quinidine from conduction delay and declining conduction velocity in canine Purkinje fibers. 
  • Characterization of constitutive exocytosis in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 
  • Characterization of excitatory amino acid receptors expressed by embryonic chick motoneurons in vitro. 
  • Characterization of multiple phosphorylation sites on the AMPA receptor GluR1 subunit. 
  • Characterization of the energy-dependent, mating factor-activated Ca2+ influx in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 
  • Characterization of the hyperpolarization-activated chloride current in dissociated rat sympathetic neurons. 
  • Characterizing activity-dependent processes with a piecewise exponential model. 
  • Chemical two-photon uncaging: a novel approach to mapping glutamate receptors. 
  • Chemokine CXCL1 enhances inflammatory pain and increases NMDA receptor activity and COX-2 expression in spinal cord neurons via activation of CXCR2. 
  • Chronic IL-1beta signaling potentiates voltage-dependent sodium currents in trigeminal nociceptive neurons. 
  • Chronic cigarette smoke extract treatment selects for apoptotic dysfunction and mitochondrial mutations in minimally transformed oral keratinocytes. 
  • Cisplatin-induced changes in sodium, chloride, and urea transport by the frog skin. 
  • Comparative toxicity of kainic acid and other acidic amino acids toward rat hippocampal neurons. 
  • Computer simulations of neuron-glia interactions mediated by ion flux. 
  • Control of electrical alternans in simulations of paced myocardium using extended time-delay autosynchronization. 
  • Correlation between function and structure in "epileptic" human hippocampal tissue maintained in vitro. 
  • Correlation between membrane potential changes and superoxide production in human granulocytes stimulated by phorbol myristate acetate. Evidence for defective activation in chronic granulomatous disease. 
  • Coupled sodium-calcium transport in cultured chick heart cells. 
  • Cultivation in rotating bioreactors promotes maintenance of cardiac myocyte electrophysiology and molecular properties. 
  • Cultured porcine trabecular meshwork cells display altered lysosomal function when subjected to chronic oxidative stress. 
  • Current flow patterns in two-dimensional anisotropic bisyncytia with normal and extreme conductivities. 
  • Current source density of sustained potential shifts associated with electrographic seizures and with spreading depression in rat hippocampus. 
  • Cyclic GMP modulates depletion-activated Ca2+ entry in pancreatic acinar cells. 
  • Cyclosporin A inhibits chromium(VI)-induced apoptosis and mitochondrial cytochrome c release and restores clonogenic survival in CHO cells. 
  • Cytoskeletal actin gates a Cl- channel in neocortical astrocytes. 
  • Cytosolic Ca2+ gradients triggering unidirectional fluid secretion from exocrine pancreas. 
  • Daptomycin resistance in enterococci is associated with distinct alterations of cell membrane phospholipid content. 
  • Data-Driven and Predefined ROI-Based Quantification of Long-Term Resting-State fMRI Reproducibility. 
  • Deep brain stimulation alleviates parkinsonian bradykinesia by regularizing pallidal activity. 
  • Defective glycolysis and calcium signaling underlie impaired insulin secretion in a transgenic mouse. 
  • Defective potassium currents in ataxia telangiectasia fibroblasts. 
  • Dendritic properties of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons in the rat: intracellular staining in vivo and in vitro. 
  • Depolarization of polymorphonuclear leukocytes by Porphyromonas (Bacteroides) gingivalis 381 in the absence of respiratory burst activation. 
  • Depression of glutamate-mediated synaptic transmission by benzyl alcohol. 
  • Depression of sustained evoked potentials and glial depolarization in the spinal cord by barbiturates and by diphenylhydantoin. 
  • Design and implementation of a new computerized system for intraoperative cardiac mapping. 
  • Development of intrinsic and synaptic properties in a forebrain nucleus essential to avian song learning. 
  • Developmental differences in the sensitivity of spontaneous and miniature IPSCs to ethanol. 
  • Differential P1-purinergic modulation of human Schlemm's canal inner-wall cells. 
  • Differential abscisic acid regulation of guard cell slow anion channels in Arabidopsis wild-type and abi1 and abi2 mutants. 
  • Differential effects of phenobarbital and pentobarbital on stimulus train-induced bursting in the hippocampal slice. 
  • Dispersion of latencies in photoreceptors of Limulus and the adapting-bump model. 
  • Dissociation of synchronization and excitability in furosemide blockade of epileptiform activity. 
  • Distinct contributions of small and large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels to rat Purkinje neuron function. 
  • Distinct effects of Ca2+ and voltage on the activation and deactivation of cloned Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels. 
  • Distinct electric potentials in soma and neurite membranes. 
  • Distribution of functional glutamate and GABA receptors on hippocampal pyramidal cells and interneurons. 
  • Diurnal changes in exocytosis and the number of synaptic ribbons at active zones of an ON-type bipolar cell terminal. 
  • Divalent cations differentially support transmitter release at the squid giant synapse. 
  • Dopamine reduces slow outward current and calcium influx in burst-firing neuron R15 of Aplysia. 
  • Dual response of lobster muscle fibers to L-glutamate. 
  • Dual-wavelength ratiometric fluorescence measurement of the membrane dipole potential. 
  • Dynamics of networks of randomly connected excitatory and inhibitory spiking neurons. 
  • Dysregulated autophagy in the RPE is associated with increased susceptibility to oxidative stress and AMD. 
  • Dysregulation of mitochondrial bioenergetics and quality control by HIV-1 Tat in cardiomyocytes. 
  • Early mitochondrial calcium defects in Huntington's disease are a direct effect of polyglutamines. 
  • Effect of amiloride and some of its analogues of cation transport in isolated frog skin and thin lipid membranes. 
  • Effect of cocaine and cocaine congeners on veratridine-induced depolarization in mouse cerebrocortical synaptoneurosomes. 
  • Effect of conductivity interfaces. 
  • Effect of intracellular anisotropy on electrical source determination in a muscle fibre. 
  • Effect of junctional resistance on source-strength in a linear cable. 
  • Effect of microscopic and macroscopic discontinuities on the response of cardiac tissue to defibrillating (stimulating) currents. 
  • Effect of nerve growth factor on synaptic depression after axotomy. 
  • Effect of oxygen at high pressure on spontaneous transmitter release. 
  • Effective boundary conditions for syncytial tissues. 
  • Effects of NKCC2 isoform regulation on NaCl transport in thick ascending limb and macula densa: a modeling study. 
  • Effects of chemical group specific reagents on sodium entry and the amiloride binding site in frog skin: evidence for separate sites. 
  • Effects of droperidol on depolarization-induced automaticity, maximum upstroke velocity (Vmax) and the kinetics of recovery of Vmax in guinea-pig ventricular myocardium. 
  • Effects of electroporation on the transmembrane potential distribution in a two-dimensional bidomain model of cardiac tissue. 
  • Effects of electroporation on transmembrane potential induced by defibrillation shocks. 
  • Effects of multiple metal binding sites on calcium and magnesium-dependent activation of BK channels. 
  • Effects of stimulation frequency on potassium activity and cell volume in cardiac tissue. 
  • Effects of volatile anesthetics on N-methyl-D-aspartate excitotoxicity in primary rat neuronal-glial cultures. 
  • Efficient fully implicit time integration methods for modeling cardiac dynamics. 
  • Electric field stimulation of excitable tissue. 
  • Electric field stimulation of excitable tissue. 
  • Electric fields within cells as a function of membrane resistivity--a model study. 
  • Electrical activity in the chemoreceptors of the blowfly. II. Responses to electrical stimulation. 
  • Electrical characteristics of insectmechanoreceptors. 
  • Electrical coupling mediates tunable low-frequency oscillations and resonance in the cerebellar Golgi cell network. 
  • Electrical stimulation directly induces pre-angiogenic responses in vascular endothelial cells by signaling through VEGF receptors. 
  • Electrode systems for measuring cardiac impedances using optical transmembrane potential sensors and interstitial electrodes--theoretical design. 
  • Electrophysiological correlates of secretion in normal human parathyroid cells. 
  • Electrophysiological effects of sulfinpyrazone on canine cardiac Purkinje fibers. 
  • Electrophysiology of neuroglia. 
  • Electrophysiology of reactive oxygen production in signaling endosomes. 
  • Electroporation and shock-induced transmembrane potential in a cardiac fiber during defibrillation strength shocks. 
  • Electrotonic loading of anisotropic cardiac monolayers by unexcitable cells depends on connexin type and expression level. 
  • Endothelin activates voltage-dependent Ca2+ current by a G protein-dependent mechanism in rabbit cardiac myocytes. 
  • Enhancement of transmission at the developing retinogeniculate synapse. 
  • Enhancement of whole cell synaptic currents by low osmolarity and by low [NaCl] in rat hippocampal slices. 
  • Enhancing the Hodgkin-Huxley Equations: Simulations Based on the First Publication in the Biophysical Journal. 
  • Ethanol and magnesium ions inhibit N-methyl-D-aspartate-mediated synaptic potentials in an interactive manner. 
  • Ethanol diminishes a voltage-dependent K+ current, the M-current, in CA1 hippocampal pyramidal neurons in vitro. 
  • Ethanol inhibition of AMPA and kainate receptor-mediated depolarizations of hippocampal area CA1. 
  • Evoked sustained focal potentials and membrane potential of neurons and of unresponsive cells of the spinal cord. 
  • Existence of both fast and slow channel activity during the early stages of ventricular fibrillation. 
  • Extensional flow of erythrocyte membrane from cell body to elastic tether. II. Experiment. 
  • Extracellular microRNAs activate nociceptor neurons to elicit pain via TLR7 and TRPA1. 
  • Extracellular potassium activity, intracellular and extracellular potential responses in the spinal cord. 
  • Facilitation of the induction of long-term potentiation by GABAB receptors. 
  • Facilitatory effects of 4-aminopyridine on neuromuscular transmission in disease states. 
  • Facilitatory effects of 4-aminopyridine on normal neuromuscular transmission. 
  • Familial hypokalemic periodic paralysis. 
  • Fast endocytosis is inhibited by GABA-mediated chloride influx at a presynaptic terminal. 
  • Field stimulation of 2-D sheets of excitable tissue. 
  • Field stimulation of cardiac fibers with random spatial structure. 
  • Field stimulation of cells in suspension: use of a hybrid finite element method. 
  • Field stimulation of isolated chick heart cells: comparison of experimental and theoretical activation thresholds. 
  • Firing frequency of leaky intergrate-and-fire neurons with synaptic current dynamics. 
  • From subthreshold to firing-rate resonance. 
  • Functional analysis of a mammalian odorant receptor subfamily. 
  • Functional asymmetry of transmembrane segments in nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. 
  • Functional characterization of a neuropeptide F-like receptor from Drosophila melanogaster. 
  • Functional selectivity of dopamine receptor agonists. II. Actions of dihydrexidine in D2L receptor-transfected MN9D cells and pituitary lactotrophs. 
  • Functions of primary afferents and responses of extracellular K+ during spinal epileptiform seizures. 
  • G protein G(alpha)o is essential for vomeronasal function and aggressive behavior in mice. 
  • GABAB autoreceptors mediate activity-dependent disinhibition and enhance signal transmission in the dentate gyrus. 
  • GYGD pore motifs in neighbouring potassium channel subunits interact to determine ion selectivity. 
  • Gating information by two-state membrane potential fluctuations. 
  • Genesis of QRS in the ruminant: graphic simulation. 
  • Genesis of the monophasic action potential: role of interstitial resistance and boundary gradients. 
  • Global forebrain dynamics predict rat behavioral states and their transitions. 
  • Glutamate as transmitter of hippocampal perforant path. 
  • Glycine antagonism does not block ischemic spontaneous depolarization in the rat. 
  • Graded responses of human neutrophils induced by serum-treated zymosan. 
  • Growth factor erv1-like modulates Drp1 to preserve mitochondrial dynamics and function in mouse embryonic stem cells. 
  • Haploinsufficiency in peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase leads to altered synaptic transmission in the amygdala and impaired emotional responses. 
  • Heptanol but not fluoroacetate prevents the propagation of spreading depression in rat hippocampal slices. 
  • High ratio of synaptic excitation to synaptic inhibition in hilar ectopic granule cells of pilocarpine-treated rats. 
  • High-resolution intracellular recordings using a real-time computational model of the electrode. 
  • Homogenization of syncytial tissues. 
  • How many channels should there be in a gap junction? 
  • Hybrid finite element method for describing the electrical response of biological cells to applied fields. 
  • Hyperexcitability following moderate hypoxia in hippocampal tissue slices. 
  • Hypertonicity sensing in organum vasculosum lamina terminalis neurons: a mechanical process involving TRPV1 but not TRPV4. 
  • Hypothermia reduces the propensity of cortical tissue to propagate direct current depolarizations in the rat. 
  • Identification of a binding motif in the S5 helix that confers cholesterol sensitivity to the TRPV1 ion channel. 
  • Identification of acetylcholine receptors in adult rat trigeminal ganglion neurons. 
  • Identification of the carotenoid present in the B-800-850 antenna complex from Rhodopseudomonas capsulata as that which responds electrochromically to transmembrane electric fields. 
  • Imaging neural activity using Thy1-GCaMP transgenic mice. 
  • Implication of mitochondrial involvement in apoptotic activity of fragile histidine triad gene: application of synchronous luminescence spectroscopy. 
  • In vitro effects of polyglutamine tracts on Ca2+-dependent depolarization of rat and human mitochondria: relevance to Huntington's disease. 
  • In vitro modulation of endogenous rhythms by AC electric fields: Syncing with clinical brain stimulation. 
  • In vitro properties of neurons in the rat pretectal nucleus of the optic tract. 
  • Inclusion of junction elements in a linear cardiac model through secondary sources: application to defibrillation. 
  • Increased adhesion between neutral lipid bilayers: interbilayer bridges formed by tannic acid. 
  • Increased expression of NR2A subunit does not alter NMDA-evoked responses in cultured fetal trisomy 16 mouse hippocampal neurons. 
  • Increased spontaneous unit activity and appearance of spontaneous negative potentials in the goldfish tectum during refinement of the optic projection. 
  • Infantile spasms and encephalopathy without preceding neonatal seizures caused by KCNQ2 R198Q, a gain-of-function variant. 
  • Influence of buffers on dV/dtmax recovery kinetics with lidocaine in myocardium. 
  • Influence of the gamma subunit and expression system on acetylcholine receptor gating. 
  • Inhibition of major cationic inward currents prevents spreading depression-like hypoxic depolarization in rat hippocampal tissue slices. 
  • Inhibition of neurotransmitter release by C2-domain peptides implicates synaptotagmin in exocytosis. 
  • Inhibition of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors by apolipoprotein E-derived peptides in rat hippocampal slices. 
  • Innervation of sympathetic neurones in the guinea-pig thoracic chain. 
  • Interaction between residues in the Mg2+-binding site regulates BK channel activation. 
  • Interaction of anaesthetics with electrical synapses. 
  • Interactions between hypothermia and the latency to ischemic depolarization: implications for neuroprotection. 
  • Intercostal muscle biopsy studies in myasthenia gravis: clinical correlations and the direct effects of drugs and myasthenic serum. 
  • Interstitial potassium concentration, slow depolarization and focal potential responses in the dorsal horn of the rat spinal slice. 
  • Interstitial potentials and their change with depth into cardiac tissue. 
  • Interstitial volume changes during spreading depression (SD) and SD-like hypoxic depolarization in hippocampal tissue slices. 
  • Intracellular calcium, currents, and stimulus-response coupling in endothelial cells. 
  • Inversion of the current-distance relationship by transient depolarization. 
  • Ion channel behavior of amphotericin B in sterol-free and cholesterol- or ergosterol-containing supported phosphatidylcholine bilayer model membranes investigated by electrochemistry and spectroscopy. 
  • Iron transport across biologic membranes. 
  • Is activation of the granulocyte by concanavalin-A a reversible process? 
  • Is endogenous D-serine in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex necessary for pain-related negative affect? 
  • Ischemic modulation of vulnerable period and the effects of pharmacological treatment of ischemia-induced arrhythmias: a simulation study. 
  • Isocitrate-to-SENP1 signaling amplifies insulin secretion and rescues dysfunctional β cells. 
  • Junctophilin-2 expression silencing causes cardiocyte hypertrophy and abnormal intracellular calcium-handling. 
  • K channel subconductance levels result from heteromeric pore conformations. 
  • KCNT1 gain of function in 2 epilepsy phenotypes is reversed by quinidine. 
  • Kinetics of interaction of disopyramide with the cardiac sodium channel: fast dissociation from open channels at normal rest potentials. 
  • Kinetics of interaction of the lidocaine metabolite glycylxylidide with the cardiac sodium channel. Additive blockade with lidocaine. 
  • Knockdown of ASIC1 and epithelial sodium channel subunits inhibits glioblastoma whole cell current and cell migration. 
  • LTP in the mouse nucleus accumbens is developmentally regulated. 
  • La3+ blockage of glutamate action at the lobster neuromuscular junction. 
  • Lability of the prolonged depolarizing afterpotential in Balanus photoreceptors. 
  • Late Na channels in cardiac cells: the physiological role of background Na channels. 
  • Ligand binding to transiently accessible sites: mechanisms for varying apparent binding rates. 
  • Limitations of approximate solutions for computing the extracellular potential of single fibers and bundle equivalents. 
  • Lipid solubility modulates pH potentiation of local anesthetic block of Vmax reactivation in guinea pig myocardium. 
  • Lipopolysaccharide stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis via activation of nuclear respiratory factor-1. 
  • Localized membrane depolarizations and localized calcium influx during electric field-guided neurite growth. 
  • Luminal CCK-releasing factor stimulates CCK release from human intestinal endocrine and STC-1 cells. 
  • Magnetic field stimulation of multicellular excitable tissue approximated by bidomain. 
  • Magnitude of the solvation pressure depends on dipole potential. 
  • Measuring Feedforward Inhibition and Its Impact on Local Circuit Function. 
  • Mechanism and specificity of lanthanide series cation transport by ionophores A23187, 4-BrA23187, and ionomycin. 
  • Mechanism of origin of conduction disturbances in aging human atrial bundles: experimental and model study. 
  • Mechanisms of closure of cardiac sodium channels in rabbit ventricular myocytes: single-channel analysis. 
  • Mechanisms of regulating the respiratory burst in leukocytes. 
  • Mechanisms of use-dependent block of sodium channels in excitable membranes by local anesthetics. 
  • Mechanisms regulating variability of the single photon responses of mammalian rod photoreceptors. 
  • Members of the myocyte enhancer factor 2 transcription factor family differentially regulate Bdnf transcription in response to neuronal depolarization. 
  • Membrane current from transmembrane potentials in complex core-conductor models. 
  • Membrane currents in CA1 pyramidal cells during spreading depression (SD) and SD-like hypoxic depolarization. 
  • Membrane potential mediates H(+)-ATPase dependence of "degradative pathway" endosomal fusion. 
  • Membrane properties underlying spontaneous activity of denervated muscle fibres. 
  • Membrane resistance, monosynaptic EPSPs, and the epileptogenic action of penicillin in spinal motoneurons. 
  • Metabolic inhibition-induced transient Ca2+ increase depends on mitochondria in a human proximal renal cell line. 
  • Mice deficient for the vesicular acetylcholine transporter are myasthenic and have deficits in object and social recognition. 
  • Microcystin-LR, a potent protein phosphatase inhibitor, prolongs the serotonin- and cAMP-induced currents in sensory neurons of Aplysia californica. 
  • Microprobe analysis of Tc-MIBI in heart cells: calculation of mitochondrial membrane potential. 
  • Microscopic variations in interstitial and intracellular structure modulate the distribution of conduction delays and block in cardiac tissue with source-load mismatch. 
  • MinK-dependent internalization of the IKs potassium channel. 
  • Mitochondria in apoptosis and human disease. 
  • Mitochondrial metabolism sets the maximal limit of fuel-stimulated insulin secretion in a model pancreatic beta cell: a survey of four fuel secretagogues. 
  • Model of creation and evolution of stable electropores for DNA delivery. 
  • Modeling electroporation in a single cell. 
  • Modeling electroporation in a single cell. I. Effects Of field strength and rest potential. 
  • Modeling the effects of electric fields on nerve fibers: determination of excitation thresholds. 
  • Modeling the effects of electric fields on nerve fibers: influence of tissue electrical properties. 
  • Modelling induction of a rotor in cardiac muscle by perpendicular electric shocks. 
  • Modelling the periodicity of cardiac muscle. 
  • Modification of a cylindrical bidomain model for cardiac tissue. 
  • Modifications of the cardiac double-layer source arising from interstitial potentials. 
  • Modulation of IA currents by capsaicin in rat trigeminal ganglion neurons. 
  • Modulation of calcium-activated potassium channels from rat brain by protein kinase A and phosphatase 2A. 
  • Modulation of conduction velocity by nonmyocytes in the low coupling regime. 
  • Modulation of proton-induced current fluctuations in the human nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel. 
  • Modulation of the binding of signal peptides to lipid bilayers by dipoles near the hydrocarbon-water interface. 
  • Modulation of the interbilayer hydration pressure by the addition of dipoles at the hydrocarbon/water interface. 
  • Molecular basis for genistein-induced inhibition of Kir2.3 currents. 
  • Molecular basis for species-specific sensitivity to "hot" chili peppers. 
  • Molecular dissection of gating in the ClC-2 chloride channel. 
  • Molecular endpoints of Ca2+/calmodulin- and voltage-dependent inactivation of Ca(v)1.3 channels. 
  • Molecular mechanisms of BK channel activation. 
  • Multiple arrhythmic syndromes in a newborn, owing to a novel mutation in SCN5A. 
  • Multiple roles for the active zone protein RIM1alpha in late stages of neurotransmitter release. 
  • Muscle sodium channel inactivation defect in paramyotonia congenita with the thr1313met mutation. 
  • Mystery of biphasic defibrillation waveform efficacy is it calcium? 
  • N-(6-chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-3,4-difluoro-benzamide (ICA-27243): a novel, selective KCNQ2/Q3 potassium channel activator. 
  • NADH fluorescence and [K+]o changes during hippocampal electrical stimulation. 
  • NMDA antagonists: lack of protective effect against hypoxic damage in CA1 region of hippocampal slices. 
  • NMDA receptor antagonists disinhibit rat posterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortices: a potential mechanism of neurotoxicity. 
  • Ncm-D-aspartate: a novel caged D-aspartate suitable for activation of glutamate transporters and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in brain tissue. 
  • Negative resistance characteristic essential for the maintenance of slow oscillations in bursting neurons. 
  • Neonatal experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis. 
  • Nerve terminal remodeling visualized in living mice by repeated examination of the same neuron. 
  • Neuroglia and spinal fluids. 
  • Neurokinin-1 receptor enhances TRPV1 activity in primary sensory neurons via PKCepsilon: a novel pathway for heat hyperalgesia. 
  • Neurosteroid modulation of GABAergic neurotransmission in the central amygdala: a role for NMDA receptors. 
  • Neurotransmitter release and nerve terminal morphology at the frog neuromuscular junction affected by the dye Erythrosin B. 
  • Neurotransmitter release from a vertebrate neuromuscular synapse affected by a food dye. 
  • Neurotrophin regulation of ionic currents and cell size depends on cell context. 
  • Newly identified brain potassium channels gated by the guanine nucleotide binding protein Go. 
  • Nicotine inhibits voltage-dependent sodium channels and sensitizes vanilloid receptors. 
  • Nitric oxide and cyclic GMP formation upon electrical field stimulation cause relaxation of corpus cavernosum smooth muscle. 
  • Nitroxyl anion regulation of the NMDA receptor. 
  • Novel anisotropic engineered cardiac tissues: studies of electrical propagation. 
  • One-dimensional model of cardiac defibrillation. 
  • Ongoing electrical activity of superior cervical ganglion cells in mammals of different size. 
  • Open Na+ channel blockade: multiple rest states revealed by channel interactions with disopyramide and quinidine. 
  • Opening of large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels by the substituted benzimidazolone NS004. 
  • Opsonized zymosan-stimulated granulocytes-activation and activity of the superoxide-generating system and membrane potential changes. 
  • Optical imaging of living brain slices. 
  • Optical mapping of translucence changes in rat hippocampal slices during hypoxia. 
  • Optical measurements of transmembrane potential changes during electric field stimulation of ventricular cells. 
  • Origin of epicardial ST-T wave potentials in the intact dog. 
  • Osmotic-hypertensive opening of the blood-brain barrier in rats does not necessarily provide access for potassium to cerebral interstitial fluid. 
  • Ouabain effects on intracellular potassium activity and contractile force in cat papillary muscle. 
  • Oxidative stress and adenine nucleotide control of mitochondrial permeability transition. 
  • Oxygen dependency of synaptic transmission at the squid Loligo pealei giant synapse. 
  • PH-Dependent effects of quinidine on the kinetics of dV/dtmax in guinea pig ventricular myocardium. 
  • Penicillin effects on iontophoretic responses in Aplysia californica. 
  • Periodic conductivity as a mechanism for cardiac stimulation and defibrillation. 
  • Peripheral axonal injury results in reduced mu opioid receptor pre- and post-synaptic action in the spinal cord. 
  • Persistence of prolonged light-induced conductance change in arthropod photoreceptors on recovery from anoxia. 
  • Phasic ion channel blockade. A kinetic model and parameter estimation procedure. 
  • Phosducin regulates the expression of transducin betagamma subunits in rod photoreceptors and does not contribute to phototransduction adaptation. 
  • Phospholemman is a substrate for myotonic dystrophy protein kinase. 
  • Phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of a regulator of G protein signaling (RGS10). 
  • Physiology of nitric oxide in skeletal muscle. 
  • Platelet glutathione transport: characteristics and evidence for regulation by intraplatelet thiol status. 
  • Polarization of a spherical cell in a nonuniform extracellular electric field. 
  • Polarized expression of cAMP-activated chloride channels in isolated epithelial cells. 
  • Pore region of TRPV3 ion channel is specifically required for heat activation. 
  • Post-natal reduction of neural unit size in the rabbit ciliary ganglion. 
  • Postischemic synaptic excitation and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation in gerbils. 
  • Potassium, neuroglia, and oxidative metabolism in central gray matter. 
  • Potassium, sustained focal potential shifts, and dorsal root potentials of the mammalian spinal cord. 
  • Potassium-induced enhancement of persistent inward current in hippocampal neurons in isolation and in tissue slices. 
  • Potential and current distributions in a cylindrical bundle of cardiac tissue. 
  • Potential distribution in three-dimensional periodic myocardium--Part I: Solution with two-scale asymptotic analysis. 
  • Potential distribution in three-dimensional periodic myocardium--Part II: Application to extracellular stimulation. 
  • Predicting patterns of epicardial potentials during ventricular fibrillation. 
  • Prediction of myelinated nerve fiber stimulation thresholds: limitations of linear models. 
  • Primary blast injury causes cognitive impairments and hippocampal circuit alterations. 
  • Proconvulsant and anticonvulsant properties of ethanol: studies of electrographic seizures in vitro. 
  • Progenitor Hyperpolarization Regulates the Sequential Generation of Neuronal Subtypes in the Developing Neocortex. 
  • Progressive incorporation of propidium iodide in cultured mouse neurons correlates with declining electrophysiological status: a fluorescence scale of membrane integrity. 
  • Prolonged inhibition in burst firing neurons: synaptic inactivation of the slow regenerative inward current. 
  • Propagating depolarization in anisotropic human and canine cardiac muscle: apparent directional differences in membrane capacitance. A simplified model for selective directional effects of modifying the sodium conductance on Vmax, tau foot, and the propagation safety factor. 
  • Propagation of excitation in idealized anisotropic two-dimensional tissue. 
  • Propagation versus delayed activation during field stimulation of cardiac muscle. 
  • Protein phosphatases mediate depotentiation induced by high-intensity theta-burst stimulation. 
  • Purification and reconstitution of the calcium release channel from skeletal muscle. 
  • Re-innervation of ganglia transplanted to the neck from different levels of the guinea-pig sympathetic chain. 
  • Reception of microwaves by the brain. 
  • Recognition and processing of randomly fluctuating electric signals by Na,K-ATPase. 
  • Reduction of conductance-based neuron models. 
  • Reduction of pentylenetetrazole-induced seizure activity in awake rats by seizure-triggered trigeminal nerve stimulation. 
  • Reduction of voltage-dependent currents by ethanol contributes to inhibition of NMDA receptor-mediated excitatory synaptic transmission. 
  • Reflection after delayed excitation in a computer model of a single fiber. 
  • Reflex effects and postsynaptic membrane potential changes during epileptiform activity induced by penicillin in decapitate spinal cords. 
  • Regulation of biliary secretion through apical purinergic receptors in cultured rat cholangiocytes. 
  • Regulation of cholecystokinin secretion by ATP-sensitive potassium channels. 
  • Regulation of membrane chloride currents in rat bile duct epithelial cells. 
  • Relating extracellular potentials and their derivatives to anisotropic propagation at a microscopic level in human cardiac muscle. Evidence for electrical uncoupling of side-to-side fiber connections with increasing age. 
  • Remote control of neuronal activity in transgenic mice expressing evolved G protein-coupled receptors. 
  • Reproducing cardiac restitution properties using the Fenton-Karma membrane model. 
  • Response of a single cell to an external electric field. 
  • Retinal rod photoreceptor-specific gene mutation perturbs cone pathway development. 
  • Reversible effects of hypoxia on neurons in mouse dorsal root ganglia in vitro. 
  • Rhodamine 123 as a probe of transmembrane potential in isolated rat-liver mitochondria: spectral and metabolic properties. 
  • Rod vision is controlled by dopamine-dependent sensitization of rod bipolar cells by GABA. 
  • Role of Na-K pump potassium regulation and IPSPs in seizures and spreading depression in immature rabbit hippocampal slices. 
  • Role of membrane curvature in mechanoelectrical transduction: ion carriers nonactin and valinomycin sense changes in integral bending energy. 
  • Role of the GLT-1 subtype of glutamate transporter in glutamate homeostasis: the GLT-1-preferring inhibitor WAY-855 produces marginal neurotoxicity in the rat hippocampus. 
  • ST-Segment alternans in Prinzmetal's angina. A report of two cases. 
  • Schwan equation and transmembrane potential induced by alternating electric field. 
  • Sedative and GABAergic effects of ethanol on male and female rats. 
  • Seizure-like afterdischarges simulated in a model neuron. 
  • Seizure-like spreading depression in immature rabbit hippocampus in vitro. 
  • Sensory attributes of complex tasting divalent salts are mediated by TRPM5 and TRPV1 channels. 
  • Short-term effects of prednisolone on neuromuscular transmission in normal rats and those with experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis. 
  • Similar propagation of SD and hypoxic SD-like depolarization in rat hippocampus recorded optically and electrically. 
  • Simple spike responses of gaze velocity Purkinje cells in the floccular lobe of the monkey during the onset and offset of pursuit eye movements. 
  • Simulation of propagation along a cylindrical bundle of cardiac tissue--I: Mathematical formulation. 
  • Simulation of propagation along a cylindrical bundle of cardiac tissue--II: Results of simulation. 
  • Simultaneous optical recording of evoked and spontaneous transients of membrane potential and intracellular calcium concentration with high spatio-temporal resolution. 
  • Simultaneous optical recording of membrane potential and intracellular calcium from brain slices. 
  • Single-detector simultaneous optical mapping of V(m) and [Ca(2+)](i) in cardiac monolayers. 
  • Slow sodium channel inactivation and use-dependent block modulated by the same domain IV S6 residue. 
  • Somatostatin augments the M-current in hippocampal neurons. 
  • Somatostatin immunohistochemistry of hippocampal slices with lucifer yellow-stained pyramidal neurons responding to somatostatin. 
  • Somatostatin receptor subtype 4 couples to the M-current to regulate seizures. 
  • Spatial performance correlates with in vitro potentiation in young and aged Fischer 344 rats. 
  • Spatiotemporal properties of layer V neurons of the rat primary somatosensory cortex. 
  • Spontaneous cortical activity in awake monkeys composed of neuronal avalanches. 
  • Stimulation of the T3-T cell receptor complex induces a membrane-potential-sensitive calcium influx. 
  • Stimulus onset quenches neural variability: a widespread cortical phenomenon. 
  • Structural basis of multifunctional bovine mitochondrial cytochrome bc1 complex. 
  • Switching mechanisms and bout times in a pair of reciprocally inhibitory neurons. 
  • Synaptic basis for developmental plasticity in a birdsong nucleus. 
  • Synaptic mechanism of pentylenetetrazole: selectivity for chloride conductance. 
  • Synaptic transformations underlying highly selective auditory representations of learned birdsong. 
  • Synthesis, structure-activity relationship, and evaluation of SR141716 analogues: development of central cannabinoid receptor ligands with lower lipophilicity. 
  • Systematic mapping of the state dependence of voltage- and Ca2+-dependent inactivation using simple open-channel measurements. 
  • TRPA1 is a major oxidant sensor in murine airway sensory neurons. 
  • TRPV4 is necessary for trigeminal irritant pain and functions as a cellular formalin receptor. 
  • Tamoxifen and tamoxifen ethyl bromide induce apoptosis in acutely damaged mammary epithelial cells through modulation of AKT activity. 
  • Tamoxifen but not 4-hydroxytamoxifen initiates apoptosis in p53(-) normal human mammary epithelial cells by inducing mitochondrial depolarization. 
  • Temperature dependence of the repulsive pressure between phosphatidylcholine bilayers. 
  • Temperature-induced opening of TRPV1 ion channel is stabilized by the pore domain. 
  • Temperature-sensitive TREK currents contribute to setting the resting membrane potential in embryonic atrial myocytes. 
  • Temporal sequence and spatial distribution of early events of fertilization in single sea urchin eggs. 
  • Tension-stabilized pores in giant vesicles: determination of pore size and pore line tension. 
  • The (S)-enantiomer of 2-hydroxysaclofen is the active GABAB receptor antagonist in central and peripheral preparations. 
  • The action of dantrolene sodium on the lobster neuromuscular junction. 
  • The anion in salt taste: a possible role for paracellular pathways. 
  • The closed form solution to the periodic core-conductor model using asymptotic analysis. 
  • The discontinuous nature of propagation in normal canine cardiac muscle. Evidence for recurrent discontinuities of intracellular resistance that affect the membrane currents. 
  • The effect of electrical coupling on the frequency of model neuronal oscillators. 
  • The effect of graded hypertonia on interstitial volume, tissue resistance and synaptic transmission in rat hippocampal tissue slices. 
  • The effect of xanthine/xanthine oxidase generated reactive oxygen species on synaptic transmission. 
  • The effects of NR2 subunit-dependent NMDA receptor kinetics on synaptic transmission and CaMKII activation. 
  • The effects of quinidine and verapamil on electrically induced automaticity in the ventricular myocardium of guinea pig. 
  • The effects of temperature on synaptic transmission in hippocampal tissue slices. 
  • The elimination of redundant preganglionic innervation to hamster sympathetic ganglion cells in early post-natal life. 
  • The estimation of sinoatrial conduction time in rabbit heart by the constant atrial pacing technique. 
  • The functional role of structural complexities in the propagation of depolarization in the atrium of the dog. Cardiac conduction disturbances due to discontinuities of effective axial resistivity. 
  • The glitter of gold: biolistic transfection of fresh adult cardiac myocytes. Focus on "normal targeting of a tagged Kv1.5 channel acutely transfected into fresh adult cardiac myocytes by a biolistic method". 
  • The ionic mechanism of the slow outward current in Aplysia neurons. 
  • The myogenic response in isolated rat cerebrovascular arteries: smooth muscle cell model. 
  • The neuromuscular blocking effects of therapeutic concentrations of various antibiotics on normal rat skeletal muscle: a quantitative comparison. 
  • The organization of n-alkanes in lipid bilayers. 
  • The potassium channel MBK1 (Kv1.1) is expressed in the mouse retina. 
  • The relation between cerebral metabolic rate and ischemic depolarization. A comparison of the effects of hypothermia, pentobarbital, and isoflurane. 
  • The role of NMDA receptors in in vitro epileptogenesis. 
  • The role of ion fluxes in hematopoietic cell differentiation. 
  • The role restitution in pacing induced spiral wave acceleration. 
  • The secretory granule matrix-electrolyte interface: a homologue of the p-n rectifying junction. 
  • The variability of the electrical properties of the pulmonary veins. 
  • The voltage-dependent anion channel is a receptor for plasminogen kringle 5 on human endothelial cells. 
  • Theoretical assessment of renal autoregulatory mechanisms. 
  • Theoretical characterization of ion channel blockade. Competitive binding to periodically accessible receptors. 
  • Three-dimensional finite element solution for biopotentials: erythrocyte in an applied field. 
  • Threshold variability in fibers with field stimulation of excitable membranes. 
  • Time course and Ca(2+) dependence of sensitivity modulation in cyclic GMP-gated currents of intact cone photoreceptors. 
  • Toward a Neurocentric View of Learning. 
  • Toxin and kinetic profile of rat brain type III sodium channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes. 
  • Transcriptional and functional profiles of voltage-gated Na(+) channels in injured and non-injured DRG neurons in the SNI model of neuropathic pain. 
  • Transduction of Repetitive Mechanical Stimuli by Piezo1 and Piezo2 Ion Channels. 
  • Transfer Function Analysis of Dynamic Blood Flow Control in the Rat Kidney. 
  • Transport pathways in rat lingual epithelium. 
  • Transport properties of the calcium ionophore ETH-129. 
  • Tris buffer attenuates acetylcholine responses in Aplysia neurons. 
  • Two PKC consensus sites on human acid-sensing ion channel 1b differentially regulate its function. 
  • Two novel alleles of tottering with distinct Ca(v)2.1 calcium channel neuropathologies. 
  • Two separate interfaces between the voltage sensor and pore are required for the function of voltage-dependent K(+) channels. 
  • Unconventional serotonergic excitation in Aplysia. 
  • Unsaturated fatty acid requirement in Escherichia coli: mechanism of palmitate-induced inhibition of growth of strain WN1. 
  • Valproate reduces excitability by blockage of sodium and potassium conductance. 
  • Very long transients, irregular firing, and chaotic dynamics in networks of randomly connected inhibitory integrate-and-fire neurons. 
  • Virtual electrode effects in transvenous defibrillation-modulation by structure and interface: evidence from bidomain simulations and optical mapping. 
  • Voltage clamp analysis of pentylenetetrazol effects on Aplysia neurons. 
  • Voltage clamping with a single microelectrode. 
  • Voltage dependence of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cell function. 
  • Voltage-dependent effects of opioid peptides on hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons in vitro. 
  • Voltage-dependent potassium currents of urethral afferent neurons in diabetes mellitus. 
  • Whole-cell membrane current and membrane resistance during hypoxic spreading depression. 
  • Y+ and y+ L arginine transporters in neuronal cells expressing tyrosine hydroxylase. 
  • α1-Syntrophin Variant Identified in Drug-Induced Long QT Syndrome Increases Late Sodium Current. 
  • β-Arrestin-2 desensitizes the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channel. 
• 

  Keywords of People

  • Erickson, Harold Paul, James B. Duke Professor of Cell Biology, Biomedical Engineering
  • Field, Greg D., Assistant Professor of Neurobiology, Neurobiology
  • Henriquez, Craig S., Professor of Biomedical Engineering, Pratt School of Engineering
  • Jordt, Sven Eric, Associate Professor in Anesthesiology, Pharmacology & Cancer Biology
  • Neu, Wanda Krassowska, Professor of Biomedical Engineering, Biomedical Engineering
  • Pitt, Geoffrey Stuart, Adjunct Professor in the Department of Medicine, Medicine, Cardiology
  • Starmer, Charles Franklin, Professor Emeritus of Computer Science, Computer Science
  • Warner, David Samuel, Distinguished Professor of Anesthesiology, in the School of Medicine, Neurobiology