Immunophenotyping

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  Subject Areas on Research

  • 9G4 autoreactivity is increased in HIV-infected patients and correlates with HIV broadly neutralizing serum activity. 
  • A cytokine cocktail directly modulates the phenotype of DC-enriched anti-tumor T cells to convey potent anti-tumor activities in a murine model. 
  • A five-drug remission induction regimen with intensive consolidation for adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: cancer and leukemia group B study 8811. 
  • A group M consensus envelope glycoprotein induces antibodies that neutralize subsets of subtype B and C HIV-1 primary viruses. 
  • A large-scale method for the selective depletion of alphabeta T lymphocytes from PBSC for allogeneic transplantation. 
  • A malignant lymphoma with histological features and immunophenotypic profile intermediate between EBV-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and EBV-positive classical Hodgkin lymphoma in a 67-year-old female: a "gray zone" lymphoma associated with Epstein-Barr virus in the elderly. 
  • A pilot trial targeting the ICOS-ICOS-L pathway in nonhuman primate kidney transplantation. 
  • A regulatory B cell subset with a unique CD1dhiCD5+ phenotype controls T cell-dependent inflammatory responses. 
  • A subset of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells expresses high levels of interleukin-12 in response to combined CD40 ligand and interferon-gamma treatment. 
  • AML-loaded DC generate Th1-type cellular immune responses in vitro. 
  • Aberrant tRNA processing causes an autoinflammatory syndrome responsive to TNF inhibitors. 
  • Absence of recoverable infectious virus and unique immune responses in an asymptomatic HIV+ long-term survivor. 
  • Acquisition of CD30 and CD15 accompanied with simultaneous loss of all pan-T-cell antigens in a case of histological transformation of mycosis fungoides with involvement of regional lymph node: an immunophenotypic alteration resembling classical Hodgkin lymphoma. 
  • Activated B cells modified by electroporation of multiple mRNAs encoding immune stimulatory molecules are comparable to mature dendritic cells in inducing in vitro antigen-specific T-cell responses. 
  • Activation-induced cytidine deaminase expression and activity in the absence of germinal centers: insights into hyper-IgM syndrome. 
  • Addition of a second, different allogeneic graft accelerates white cell and platelet engraftment after T-cell-depleted bone marrow transplantation. 
  • Adoptively transferred effector cells derived from naive rather than central memory CD8+ T cells mediate superior antitumor immunity. 
  • Adult high-grade B-cell lymphoma with Burkitt lymphoma signature: genomic features and potential therapeutic targets. 
  • Allelic exclusion of the TCR alpha-chain is an active process requiring TCR-mediated signaling and c-Cbl. 
  • Allogeneic splenocyte transfer and lipopolysaccharide inhalations induce differential T cell expansion and lung injury: a novel model of pulmonary graft-versus-host disease. 
  • Altered Maturation Status and Possible Immune Exhaustion of CD8 T Lymphocytes in the Peripheral Blood of Patients Presenting With Acute Coronary Syndromes. 
  • Altered T-dependent antigen responses and development of autoimmune symptoms in mice lacking E2A in T lymphocytes. 
  • Altered lymphocyte populations in tumour invaded nodes of breast cancer patients. 
  • Analysis of corneal and conjunctival microenvironments using monoclonal antibodies. 
  • Assessing immunophenotyping performance: proficiency-validation for adopting improved flow cytometry methods. 
  • B-cell lymphoma with hyaline vascular Castleman disease-like features: a clinicopathologic study. 
  • BTLA expression declines on B cells of the aged and is associated with low responsiveness to the trivalent influenza vaccine. 
  • Blast phase in chronic myelogenous leukemia is skewed toward unusual blast types in patients treated with tyrosine kinase inhibitors: a comparative study of 67 cases. 
  • Blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm: a clinicopathologic review. 
  • Burkitt lymphoma arising in organ transplant recipients: a clinicopathologic study of five cases. 
  • CD19 can regulate B lymphocyte signal transduction independent of complement activation. 
  • CD3+CD8+ cell levels as predictors of transmission in human immunodeficiency virus-infected couples: a report from the heterosexual HIV transmission study. 
  • CD3-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma relapses as CD3-negative large B-cell lymphoma: Loss of aberrant antigen expression in B-cell lymphoma after chemotherapy. 
  • CD34+CD38-lin- cord blood cells develop into dendritic cells in human thymic stromal monolayers and thymic nodules. 
  • CD4 immunophenotyping in HIV infection. 
  • CD4/CD8 double negative pagetoid reticulosis: a case report and literature review. 
  • CD52 expression in mantle cell lymphoma. 
  • CD7 and CD28 are required for murine CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cell homeostasis and prevention of thyroiditis. 
  • Carbohydrate recognition on MUC1-expressing targets enhances cytotoxicity of a T cell subpopulation. 
  • Changes in CD4+ T-cell differentiation phenotype during structured treatment interruption in patients with chronic HIV-1 infection. 
  • Changes in T and non-T lymphocyte subsets following seroconversion to HIV-1: stable CD3+ and declining CD3- populations suggest regulatory responses linked to loss of CD4 lymphocytes. The Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. 
  • Characterization of CD4 and CD8 T cell responses in MuSK myasthenia gravis. 
  • Characterization of effector T cells in dry eye disease. 
  • Clinical and immunologic effects of prolonged infusion of low-dose recombinant interleukin-2 after autologous and T-cell-depleted allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. 
  • Clinicopathologic findings in high-grade B-cell lymphomas with typical Burkitt morphologic features but lacking the MYC translocation. 
  • Clonal expansion of CD8+ BV8 T lymphocytes in bone marrow characterizes thymoma-associated B lymphopenia. 
  • Coadministration of IL-12 or IL-10 expression cassettes drives immune responses toward a Th1 phenotype. 
  • Coexistence of macular corneal dystrophy types I and II in a single sibship. 
  • Coexistent naïve phenotype and higher cycling rate of cord blood T cells as compared to adult peripheral blood. 
  • Common occurrence of monoclonal B-cell lymphocytosis among members of high-risk CLL families. 
  • Comparative and functional evaluation of in vitro generated to ex vivo CD8 T cells. 
  • Consensus guidelines on plasma cell myeloma minimal residual disease analysis and reporting. 
  • Correction of proliferative responses in purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP)-deficient T lymphocytes by retroviral-mediated PNP gene transfer and expression. 
  • Corticosteroids regulate epithelial cell differentiation and Hassall body formation in the human thymus. 
  • Cutting edge: distinct glycolytic and lipid oxidative metabolic programs are essential for effector and regulatory CD4+ T cell subsets. 
  • Cytosolic phospholipase A2 alpha-deficient mice are resistant to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. 
  • Decreased normal NK-cells is a characteristic of T-cell large granular lymphocytic leukemia and is strongly associated with cytopenia. 
  • Deficiency in Bak and Bax perturbs thymic selection and lymphoid homeostasis. 
  • Dendritic cells improve the generation of Epstein-Barr virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes for the treatment of posttransplantation lymphoma. 
  • Dendritic cells/natural killer cross-talk: a novel target for human immunodeficiency virus type-1 protease inhibitors. 
  • Detection of HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies in a human CD4⁺/CXCR4⁺/CCR5⁺ T-lymphoblastoid cell assay system. 
  • Detection of clonal lymphoid receptor gene rearrangements in langerhans cell histiocytosis. 
  • Diagnosis of anaplastic large-cell lymphoma, including multifocal osseous KI-1 lymphoma, by fine-needle aspiration biopsy. 
  • Diagnosis of gastrointestinal T-cell lymphomas in routinely processed tissues. 
  • Diagnosis of hematopoietic processes by fine-needle aspiration in conjunction with flow cytometry: A review of 127 cases. 
  • Diagnosis of posttransplant granulocytic sarcoma by fine-needle aspiration cytology and flow cytometry. 
  • Differential Immune Microenvironments and Response to Immune Checkpoint Blockade among Molecular Subtypes of Murine Medulloblastoma. 
  • Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Version 1.2016. 
  • Does HLA-dependent chimerism underlie the pathogenesis of juvenile dermatomyositis? 
  • Dominant gain-of-function STAT1 mutations in FOXP3 wild-type immune dysregulation-polyendocrinopathy-enteropathy-X-linked-like syndrome. 
  • Donor cell leukemia in umbilical cord blood transplant patients: a case study and literature review highlighting the importance of molecular engraftment analysis. 
  • Donor cell-derived leukemias/myelodysplastic neoplasms in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: a clinicopathologic study of 10 cases and a comprehensive review of the literature. 
  • Early human T cell development: analysis of the human thymus at the time of initial entry of hematopoietic stem cells into the fetal thymic microenvironment. 
  • Effect of CD8+ lymphocyte depletion on virus containment after simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac251 challenge of live attenuated SIVmac239delta3-vaccinated rhesus macaques. 
  • Effective asparagine depletion with pegylated asparaginase results in improved outcomes in adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Cancer and Leukemia Group B Study 9511. 
  • Elevated level of peripheral CD8(+)CD28(-) T lymphocytes are an independent predictor of progression-free survival in patients with metastatic breast cancer during the course of chemotherapy. 
  • Epstein-Barr virus-negative diffuse large B cell lymphoma with aberrant expression of CD3 and other T cell-associated antigens: report of three cases with a review of the literature. 
  • Evaluation of T-lymphocyte subsets present in semen and peripheral blood of healthy donors: a report from the heterosexual transmission study. 
  • Evidence of fibroblast heterogeneity and the role of fibroblast subpopulations in fibrosis. 
  • Expression of tumor-suppressor genes interferon regulatory factor 1 and death-associated protein kinase in primitive acute myelogenous leukemia cells. 
  • First use of thymus transplantation therapy for FOXN1 deficiency (nude/SCID): a report of 2 cases. 
  • Flow Cytometric Analysis of Myeloid Cells in Human Blood, Bronchoalveolar Lavage, and Lung Tissues. 
  • Flow Cytometric Identification of Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocytes from Glioblastoma. 
  • Follicular lymphoma with prominent Dutcher body formation: a pathologic study of 3 cases in comparison with nodal or splenic lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma and marginal zone lymphoma. 
  • Follow up of soluble IL-2 receptor level in metastatic malignant melanoma patients treated by chemoimmunotherapy. 
  • Functional characteristics and survival requirements of memory CD4+ T lymphocytes in vivo. 
  • Generation of primary tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes from autologous and human lymphocyte antigen class I-matched allogeneic peripheral blood lymphocytes by B7 gene-modified melanoma cells. 
  • Genetic and phenotypic characteristics of pleomorphic lobular carcinoma in situ of the breast. 
  • Graft hyporeactivity induced by donor-derived dendritic cell progenitors. 
  • Growth failure and AIDS-like cachexia syndrome in HIV-1 transgenic mice. 
  • Guideline for flow cytometric immunophenotyping: a report from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Division of AIDS. 
  • Hairy Cell Leukemia, Version 2.2018, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. 
  • Hematopoietic stem cell dose correlates with the speed of immune reconstitution after stem cell transplantation. 
  • Hepatic stellate cells undermine the allostimulatory function of liver myeloid dendritic cells via STAT3-dependent induction of IDO. 
  • Hepatosplenic T-Cell Lymphoma: A Clinicopathologic Review With an Emphasis on Diagnostic Differentiation From Other T-Cell/Natural Killer-Cell Neoplasms. 
  • Hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma: an unusual case of a gamma delta T-cell lymphoma with a blast-like terminal transformation. 
  • Hierarchical Bayesian mixture modelling for antigen-specific T-cell subtyping in combinatorially encoded flow cytometry studies. 
  • High frequency of clonal immunoglobulin receptor gene rearrangements in sporadic histiocytic/dendritic cell sarcomas. 
  • High frequency of immunophenotype changes in acute myeloid leukemia at relapse: implications for residual disease detection (Cancer and Leukemia Group B Study 8361). 
  • High proportions of regulatory B and T cells are associated with decreased cellular responses to pH1N1 influenza vaccine in HIV-infected children and youth (IMPAACT P1088). 
  • High-throughput sequencing detects minimal residual disease in acute T lymphoblastic leukemia. 
  • Histiocytes in familial and infection-induced/idiopathic hemophagocytic syndromes may exhibit phenotypic differences. 
  • Human blood dendritic cells selectively express CD83, a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. 
  • Human dendritic cells, pulsed with either melanoma tumor cell lysates or the gp100 peptide(280-288), induce pairs of T-cell cultures with similar phenotype and lytic activity. 
  • Human equivalent of the mouse Nude/SCID phenotype: long-term evaluation of immunologic reconstitution after bone marrow transplantation. 
  • Human gammadelta T cells from G-CSF-mobilized donors retain strong tumoricidal activity and produce immunomodulatory cytokines after clinical-scale isolation. 
  • Human severe combined immunodeficiency: genetic, phenotypic, and functional diversity in one hundred eight infants. 
  • Hyperspectral molecular imaging of multiple receptors using immunolabeled plasmonic nanoparticles. 
  • Immune reconstitution in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: a cohort study. 
  • Immunobiology of malignant astrocytomas. 
  • Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural markers suggest different origins for cuboidal and polygonal cells in pulmonary sclerosing hemangioma. 
  • Immunologic profile of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients during viral remission and relapse on antiretroviral therapy. 
  • Immunopathogenic events in acute infection of rhesus monkeys with simian immunodeficiency virus of macaques. 
  • Immunophenotype and molecular characterisation of adenocarcinoma of the small intestine. 
  • Immunophenotypic and gene expression analysis of monoclonal B-cell lymphocytosis shows biologic characteristics associated with good prognosis CLL. 
  • Immunophenotyping of chimeric cells in localized scleroderma. 
  • Immunoreconstitution after ritonavir therapy in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection involves multiple lymphocyte lineages. 
  • Impact of Specimen Heterogeneity on Biomarkers in Repository Samples from Patients with Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A SWOG Report. 
  • Improved detection of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma by flow cytometric immunophenotyping-Effect of tissue disaggregation method. 
  • In vitro priming and expansion of cytomegalovirus-specific Th1 and Tc1 T cells from naive cord blood lymphocytes. 
  • Increased thymic output during acute measles virus infection. 
  • Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiac progenitors differentiate to cardiomyocytes and form biosynthetic tissues. 
  • Induction of anti-melanoma CTL response using DC transfected with mutated mRNA encoding full-length Melan-A/MART-1 antigen with an A27L amino acid substitution. 
  • Induction of primary, antiviral cytotoxic, and proliferative responses with antigens administered via dendritic cells. 
  • Inhibition of NF-kappa B and oxidative pathways in human dendritic cells by antioxidative vitamins generates regulatory T cells. 
  • Inhibition of adaptive immune responses leads to a fatal clinical outcome in SIV-infected pigtailed macaques but not vervet African green monkeys. 
  • Inverse correlation of maturity and antibacterial activity in human dendritic cells. 
  • Isolation and Characterization of Human Lung Myeloid Cells. 
  • Laboratory correlates and prognostic significance of granular acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children. A Pediatric Oncology Group study. 
  • Linkage of the CCR5 Delta 32 mutation with a functional polymorphism of CD45RA. 
  • Long-term results of Dana-Farber Cancer Institute ALL Consortium protocols for children with newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukemia (1985-2000). 
  • Longitudinal peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets correlate with decreased disease activity in juvenile dermatomyositis. 
  • Lung effector memory and activated CD4+ T cells display enhanced proliferation in surfactant protein A-deficient mice during allergen-mediated inflammation. 
  • Lymphocyte accumulation in the spleen of retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor gamma-deficient mice. 
  • Lymphocyte activation markers may predict the presence of donor specific alloreactivity in pediatric living related liver transplant recipients. 
  • Lymphocyte immunoregulatory cells present in semen from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals: a report from the HIV Heterosexual Transmission Study. 
  • Lymphocyte phenotypes in wild-caught rats suggest potential mechanisms underlying increased immune sensitivity in post-industrial environments. 
  • Lymphocyte shedding from genital tract of human immunodeficiency virus-infected women: immunophenotypic and clinical correlates. 
  • Major expansion of CD8+ T cells with a predominant V beta usage during the primary immune response to HIV. 
  • Merkel cell carcinoma with partial B-cell blastic immunophenotype: a potential mimic of cutaneous richter transformation in a patient with chronic lymphocytic lymphoma. 
  • Mobilization of dendritic cells from patients with breast cancer into peripheral blood stem cell leukapheresis samples using Flt-3-Ligand and G-CSF or GM-CSF. 
  • Molecular characteristics of mantle cell lymphoma presenting with clonal plasma cell component. 
  • Monoclonal B cell lymphocytosis. 
  • Most rhesus macaques infected with the CCR5-tropic SHIV(AD8) generate cross-reactive antibodies that neutralize multiple HIV-1 strains. 
  • Mucosal and systemic immune activation is present in human immunodeficiency virus-exposed seronegative women. 
  • Multiparameter-fluorescence activated cell sorting analysis of retroviral vector gene transfer into primitive umbilical cord blood cells. 
  • Multiple phenotypic changes in mice after knockout of the B3gnt5 gene, encoding Lc3 synthase--a key enzyme in lacto-neolacto ganglioside synthesis. 
  • NCCN task force report: molecular markers in leukemias and lymphomas. 
  • Naïve T cells are maintained in the periphery during the first 3 months of acute HIV-1 infection: implications for analysis of thymus function. 
  • Neural cell adhesion molecule (CD56)-positive acute myelogenous leukemia and myelodysplastic and myeloproliferative syndromes. 
  • Neutralization Takes Precedence Over IgG or IgA Isotype-related Functions in Mucosal HIV-1 Antibody-mediated Protection. 
  • Neutralizing and infection-enhancing antibody responses to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in long-term nonprogressors. 
  • Notch1 perturbation of hemopoiesis involves non-cell- autonomous modifications. 
  • OX40+ Regulatory T Cells in Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Suppress Effector T-Cell Responses and Associate with Metastatic Potential. 
  • Outcomes in two Japanese adenosine deaminase-deficiency patients treated by stem cell gene therapy with no cytoreductive conditioning. 
  • Perforin and IL-2 upregulation define qualitative differences among highly functional virus-specific human CD8 T cells. 
  • Peripheral blood dendritic cells, but not monocyte-derived dendritic cells, can augment human NK cell function. 
  • Phenotype of infiltrating cells in an ex vivo model of human antiporcine hyperacute cardiac xenograft rejection. 
  • Phenotyping Tumor-Associated Macrophages. 
  • Podocyte cell cycle regulation and proliferation in collapsing glomerulopathies. 
  • Post-transplantation B cell function in different molecular types of SCID. 
  • Preoperative mobilization of circulating dendritic cells by Flt3 ligand administration to patients with metastatic colon cancer. 
  • Primary central nervous system lymphomas: a 30-year experience at a single institution. 
  • Primary central nervous system posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders. 
  • Profiling of CD4+, CD8+, and CD4+CD25+CD45RO+FoxP3+ T cells in patients with malignant glioma reveals differential expression of the immunologic transcriptome compared with T cells from healthy volunteers. 
  • Progenitor cell dose determines the pace and completeness of engraftment in a xenograft model for cord blood transplantation. 
  • Prospective isolation of bronchiolar stem cells based upon immunophenotypic and autofluorescence characteristics. 
  • Pyogenic variant of primary cutaneous anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: a lymphoproliferative disorder with a predilection for the immunocompromized and the young. 
  • Replication-defective canarypox (ALVAC) vectors effectively activate anti-human immunodeficiency virus-1 cytotoxic T lymphocytes present in infected patients: implications for antigen-specific immunotherapy. 
  • Restricted isotype, distinct variable gene usage, and high rate of gp120 specificity of HIV-1 envelope-specific B cells in colostrum compared with those in blood of HIV-1-infected, lactating African women. 
  • Rhesus macaques that become systemically infected with pathogenic SHIV 89.6-PD after intravenous, rectal, or vaginal inoculation and fail to make an antiviral antibody response rapidly develop AIDS. 
  • Salmonella efficiently enter and survive within cultured CD11c+ dendritic cells initiating cytokine expression. 
  • Sequential development of histiocytic sarcoma and diffuse large b-cell lymphoma in a patient with a remote history of follicular lymphoma with genotypic evidence of a clonal relationship: a divergent (bilineal) neoplastic transformation of an indolent B-cell lymphoma in a single individual. 
  • Severe chronic graft-versus-host disease is characterized by a preponderance of CD4(+) effector memory cells relative to central memory cells. 
  • Severely impaired B lymphocyte proliferation, survival, and induction of the c-Myc:Cullin 1 ubiquitin ligase pathway resulting from CD22 deficiency on the C57BL/6 genetic background. 
  • Shared monocyte subset phenotypes in HIV-1 infection and in uninfected subjects with acute coronary syndrome. 
  • Single-cell analysis reveals oligoclonality among 'low-count' monoclonal B-cell lymphocytosis. 
  • Spontaneous formation of germinal centers in autoimmune mice. 
  • Status of activation of circulating vaccine-elicited CD8+ T cells. 
  • Stromal cell independent B cell development in vitro: generation and recovery of autoreactive clones. 
  • Studies of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from a human choroidal melanoma. 
  • Successful engraftment of human postnatal thymus in severe combined immune deficient (SCID) mice: differential engraftment of thymic components with irradiation versus anti-asialo GM-1 immunosuppressive regimens. 
  • Synergistic Immuno Photothermal Nanotherapy (SYMPHONY) for the Treatment of Unresectable and Metastatic Cancers. 
  • T cell receptor gamma/delta expression on lymphocyte populations of breast cancer patients. 
  • T cell repertoire development in humans with SCID after nonablative allogeneic marrow transplantation. 
  • T lymphocyte ontogeny in adenosine deaminase-deficient severe combined immune deficiency after treatment with polyethylene glycol-modified adenosine deaminase. 
  • T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia in a 63-year-old female with a pre-existing T-cell large granular lymphocytic leukemia: metachronous T-cell leukemias with discordant subset restrictions (CD4 versus CD8) and distinct clonal identities. 
  • TCF1 Is Required for the T Follicular Helper Cell Response to Viral Infection. 
  • Tandem mass spectrometry, but not T-cell receptor excision circle analysis, identifies newborns with late-onset adenosine deaminase deficiency 
  • The Immunology Quality Assessment Proficiency Testing Program for CD3⁺4⁺ and CD3⁺8⁺ lymphocyte subsets: a ten year review via longitudinal mixed effects modeling. 
  • The interleukin-3 receptor alpha chain is a unique marker for human acute myelogenous leukemia stem cells. 
  • The natural history of children with severe combined immunodeficiency: baseline features of the first fifty patients of the primary immune deficiency treatment consortium prospective study 6901. 
  • Thymus transplantation restores the repertoires of forkhead box protein 3 (FoxP3)+ and FoxP3- T cells in complete DiGeorge anomaly. 
  • Vaccination establishes clonal relatives of germinal center T cells in the blood of humans. 
  • Variable HLA expression on deceased donor lymphocytes: Not all crossmatches are created equal. 
  • Vascular endothelial cells produce soluble factors that mediate the recovery of human hematopoietic stem cells after radiation injury. 
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  Keywords of People

  • Buckley, Rebecca Hatcher, James Buren Sidbury Professor of Pediatrics, in the School of Medicine, Immunology
  • Ferrari, Guido, Associate Professor of Surgery, Molecular Genetics and Microbiology
  • Kelsoe, Garnett H., James B. Duke Professor of Immunology, Immunology
  • Lagoo, Anand Shreeram, Professor of Pathology, Pathology
  • McLendon, Roger Edwin, Professor of Pathology, Pathology