Scholars@Duke
Gale Allen Boyd

Gale Allen Boyd

Associate Research Professor in the Social Science Research Institute
Social Science Research Institute
gale.boyd@duke.edu
261 Gross Hall, Box 90989, Durham, NC 27708
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Selected Publications

Net-zero CO2 by 2050 scenarios for the United States in the Energy Modeling Forum 37 study

Journal Article Energy and Climate Change · December 1, 2023 The Energy Modeling Forum (EMF) 37 study on deep decarbonization and high electrification analyzed a set of scenarios that achieve economy-wide net-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in North America by mid-century, exploring the implications of different ... Full text Cite

“Is Energy That Different from Labor?” Similarity in Determinants of Intensity for Auto Assembly Plants

Journal Article Energies · February 1, 2023 This paper addresses the question “Is energy that different from labor?” from the perspective of efficiency. It presents a novel statistical analysis for the auto assembly industry in North America to examine the determinants of relative energy intensity, ... Full text Cite

ENERGY STAR Continues the Focus on Energy Efficiency in Industrial Decarbonization

Conference 2023 AEE World Energy Conference and Expo · January 1, 2023 Cite

Bottom-up estimates of deep decarbonization of U.S. manufacturing in 2050

Journal Article Journal of Cleaner Production · January 1, 2022 The world needs to rapidly reduce emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission to stave off the risks of disastrous climate change. In particular, decarbonizing U.S. manufacturing industries is particularly challenging due to the specific process requirement ... Full text Cite

An alternative approach to estimation of the energy efficiency gap in food processing

Journal Article Energy Efficiency · March 1, 2021 This paper proposes an alternative approach to the estimation of the “practical” energy efficiency gap, using the US food processing industry as an empirical example. Starting with stochastic frontier energy demand functions estimates based on non-public, ... Full text Cite

Relative Effectiveness of Energy Efficiency Programs versus Market Based Climate Policies in the Chemical Industry

Journal Article The Energy Journal · May 2020 This paper addresses the relative effectiveness of market vs program based climate policies. We compute the carbon price resulting in an equivalent reduction in energy from programs that eliminate the efficiency gap. A reduced-form stochastic fron ... Full text Open Access Cite

Measuring plant level energy efficiency and technical change in the U.S. metal-based durable manufacturing sector using stochastic frontier analysis

Journal Article Energy Economics · June 1, 2019 This study analyzes the electric and fuel energy efficiency for five different metal-based durable manufacturing industries in the United States over the time period 1987–2012, at the 3 digit North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) level. Usi ... Full text Open Access Cite

Creating linked datasets for SME energy-assessment evidence-building: Results from the U.S. Industrial Assessment Center Program

Journal Article Energy Policy · December 1, 2017 Lack of information is commonly cited as a market failure resulting in an energy-efficiency gap. Government information policies to fill this gap may enable improvements in energy efficiency and social welfare because of the externalities of energy use. Th ... Full text Open Access Cite

A New Benchmark of Energy Performance for Energy Management in U.S. and Canadian Integrated Steel Plants

Journal Article Iron and Steel Technology · May 1, 2017 ENERGY STAR® supports businesses and consumers by making it easier to save money and protect the climate through superior energy efficiency. A key ENERGY STAR energy management tool for industry is the plant Energy Performance Indicator (EPI), which provid ... Open Access Cite

Comparing the statistical distributions of energy efficiency in manufacturing: meta-analysis of 24 Case studies to develop industry-specific energy performance indicators (EPI)

Journal Article Energy Efficiency · February 1, 2017 There is growing interest among policy makers and others regarding the role that industrial energy efficiency can play in mitigation of climate change. For over 10 years, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has supported the development of sector- ... Full text Cite

Evidence of an "Energy-Management Gap" in U.S. manufacturing: Spillovers from firm management practices to energy efficiency

Journal Article Journal of Environmental Economics and Management · November 1, 2014 In this paper we merge a well-cited survey of firm management practices into confidential plant level U.S. Census manufacturing data to examine whether generic, i.e. non-energy specific, firm management practices, "spillover" to enhance energy efficiency i ... Full text Cite

Estimating the changes in the distribution of energy efficiency in the U.S. automobile assembly industry

Journal Article Energy Economics · March 1, 2014 This paper describes the EPA's voluntary ENERGY STAR program and the results of the automobile manufacturing industry's efforts to advance energy management as measured by the updated ENERGY STAR Energy Performance Indicator (EPI). A stochastic single-fact ... Full text Cite

Energy performance indicator for integrated mills

Journal Article Paper360 · January 1, 2014 The US Environmental Protection Agency's Energy Star program and researchers at Duke University have worked with companies in the pulp, paper, and paperboard industry to develop the Energy Performance Indicator (EPI), a statistical model that lets integrat ... Cite

Measuring improvement in energy efficiency of the US cement industry with the ENERGY STAR Energy Performance Indicator

Journal Article Energy Efficiency · February 1, 2013 The lack of a system for benchmarking industrial plant energy efficiency represents a major obstacle to improving efficiency. While estimates are sometimes available for specific technologies, the efficiency of one plant versus another could only be captur ... Full text Cite

Measuring and encouraging energy efficiency

Journal Article Glass International · October 1, 2012 The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has launched Energy Star program which develops tools to benchmark the energy performance of flat and container glass plants in the USA. Energy Star provides a tool called the Energy Star Energy Performance indi ... Cite

A statistical approach to plant-level energy benchmarks and baselines: A manufacturing-plant energy performance indicator

Journal Article Society of Petroleum Engineers - Carbon Management Technology Conference 2012 · May 18, 2012 Energy efficiency is a metric of relative performance, to either a benchmark or plant specific baseline. As such, these metrics are an integral component of energy and carbon management practices. This paper presents an approach used by Energy Star to impl ... Cite

Shifting energy performance in U.S. cement production

Journal Article IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference (Paper) · June 29, 2010 In the mid-1990's, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approached U.S. cement producers to work together to improve the energy efficiency of U.S. cement plants. Initially, EPA and the producers developed basic tools for identifying potential ene ... Full text Cite

Engaging the U.S. Cement Industry to Improve Energy Performance

Journal Article Cement World · December 2009 Cite

Net-zero CO2 by 2050 scenarios for the United States in the Energy Modeling Forum 37 study

Journal Article Energy and Climate Change · December 1, 2023 The Energy Modeling Forum (EMF) 37 study on deep decarbonization and high electrification analyzed a set of scenarios that achieve economy-wide net-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in North America by mid-century, exploring the implications of different ... Full text Cite

“Is Energy That Different from Labor?” Similarity in Determinants of Intensity for Auto Assembly Plants

Journal Article Energies · February 1, 2023 This paper addresses the question “Is energy that different from labor?” from the perspective of efficiency. It presents a novel statistical analysis for the auto assembly industry in North America to examine the determinants of relative energy intensity, ... Full text Cite

ENERGY STAR Continues the Focus on Energy Efficiency in Industrial Decarbonization

Conference 2023 AEE World Energy Conference and Expo · January 1, 2023 Cite

Bottom-up estimates of deep decarbonization of U.S. manufacturing in 2050

Journal Article Journal of Cleaner Production · January 1, 2022 The world needs to rapidly reduce emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission to stave off the risks of disastrous climate change. In particular, decarbonizing U.S. manufacturing industries is particularly challenging due to the specific process requirement ... Full text Cite

An alternative approach to estimation of the energy efficiency gap in food processing

Journal Article Energy Efficiency · March 1, 2021 This paper proposes an alternative approach to the estimation of the “practical” energy efficiency gap, using the US food processing industry as an empirical example. Starting with stochastic frontier energy demand functions estimates based on non-public, ... Full text Cite

Relative Effectiveness of Energy Efficiency Programs versus Market Based Climate Policies in the Chemical Industry

Journal Article The Energy Journal · May 2020 This paper addresses the relative effectiveness of market vs program based climate policies. We compute the carbon price resulting in an equivalent reduction in energy from programs that eliminate the efficiency gap. A reduced-form stochastic fron ... Full text Open Access Cite

Measuring plant level energy efficiency and technical change in the U.S. metal-based durable manufacturing sector using stochastic frontier analysis

Journal Article Energy Economics · June 1, 2019 This study analyzes the electric and fuel energy efficiency for five different metal-based durable manufacturing industries in the United States over the time period 1987–2012, at the 3 digit North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) level. Usi ... Full text Open Access Cite

Creating linked datasets for SME energy-assessment evidence-building: Results from the U.S. Industrial Assessment Center Program

Journal Article Energy Policy · December 1, 2017 Lack of information is commonly cited as a market failure resulting in an energy-efficiency gap. Government information policies to fill this gap may enable improvements in energy efficiency and social welfare because of the externalities of energy use. Th ... Full text Open Access Cite

A New Benchmark of Energy Performance for Energy Management in U.S. and Canadian Integrated Steel Plants

Journal Article Iron and Steel Technology · May 1, 2017 ENERGY STAR® supports businesses and consumers by making it easier to save money and protect the climate through superior energy efficiency. A key ENERGY STAR energy management tool for industry is the plant Energy Performance Indicator (EPI), which provid ... Open Access Cite

Comparing the statistical distributions of energy efficiency in manufacturing: meta-analysis of 24 Case studies to develop industry-specific energy performance indicators (EPI)

Journal Article Energy Efficiency · February 1, 2017 There is growing interest among policy makers and others regarding the role that industrial energy efficiency can play in mitigation of climate change. For over 10 years, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has supported the development of sector- ... Full text Cite

Evidence of an "Energy-Management Gap" in U.S. manufacturing: Spillovers from firm management practices to energy efficiency

Journal Article Journal of Environmental Economics and Management · November 1, 2014 In this paper we merge a well-cited survey of firm management practices into confidential plant level U.S. Census manufacturing data to examine whether generic, i.e. non-energy specific, firm management practices, "spillover" to enhance energy efficiency i ... Full text Cite

Estimating the changes in the distribution of energy efficiency in the U.S. automobile assembly industry

Journal Article Energy Economics · March 1, 2014 This paper describes the EPA's voluntary ENERGY STAR program and the results of the automobile manufacturing industry's efforts to advance energy management as measured by the updated ENERGY STAR Energy Performance Indicator (EPI). A stochastic single-fact ... Full text Cite

Energy performance indicator for integrated mills

Journal Article Paper360 · January 1, 2014 The US Environmental Protection Agency's Energy Star program and researchers at Duke University have worked with companies in the pulp, paper, and paperboard industry to develop the Energy Performance Indicator (EPI), a statistical model that lets integrat ... Cite

Measuring improvement in energy efficiency of the US cement industry with the ENERGY STAR Energy Performance Indicator

Journal Article Energy Efficiency · February 1, 2013 The lack of a system for benchmarking industrial plant energy efficiency represents a major obstacle to improving efficiency. While estimates are sometimes available for specific technologies, the efficiency of one plant versus another could only be captur ... Full text Cite

Measuring and encouraging energy efficiency

Journal Article Glass International · October 1, 2012 The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has launched Energy Star program which develops tools to benchmark the energy performance of flat and container glass plants in the USA. Energy Star provides a tool called the Energy Star Energy Performance indi ... Cite

A statistical approach to plant-level energy benchmarks and baselines: A manufacturing-plant energy performance indicator

Journal Article Society of Petroleum Engineers - Carbon Management Technology Conference 2012 · May 18, 2012 Energy efficiency is a metric of relative performance, to either a benchmark or plant specific baseline. As such, these metrics are an integral component of energy and carbon management practices. This paper presents an approach used by Energy Star to impl ... Cite

Shifting energy performance in U.S. cement production

Journal Article IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference (Paper) · June 29, 2010 In the mid-1990's, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approached U.S. cement producers to work together to improve the energy efficiency of U.S. cement plants. Initially, EPA and the producers developed basic tools for identifying potential ene ... Full text Cite

Engaging the U.S. Cement Industry to Improve Energy Performance

Journal Article Cement World · December 2009 Cite

Benchmarking Weather Sensitive Plant Level Manufacturing Energy Use

Journal Article Int. J. Global Energy Issues · March 2009 Cite

Benchmarking weather sensitive plant level manufacturing energy use

Journal Article International Journal of Global Energy Issues · January 1, 2009 Energy intensity of manufacturing varies due to the products produced and the efficiency of production. For some sectors a portion of the energy demand is weather sensitive. This paper applies stochastic frontier regression to auto assembly and pharmaceuti ... Full text Cite

The evolution of the ENERGY STAR® energy performance indicator for benchmarking industrial plant manufacturing energy use

Journal Article Journal of Cleaner Production · April 1, 2008 ENERGY STAR® is a voluntary government/industry partnership that offers information to businesses and consumers on energy-efficient solutions, making it easier to save money and protect the environment for future generations. Introduced in 1992 by the US E ... Full text Cite

The Evolution of the Energy Star Industrial Energy Performance Indicator for Benchmarking Plant Level Manufacturing Energy Use

Journal Article Journal of Cleaner Production, Invited paper for the special issue Pollution Prevention and Cleaner Production in the United States of America · April 2008 Cite

Estimating plant level energy efficiency with a stochastic frontier

Journal Article Energy Journal · January 1, 2008 A common distinguishing feature of engineering models is that they explicitly represent best practice technologies, while parametric/ statistical models represent average practice. It is more useful to energy management or goal setting to have a measure of ... Full text Cite

ENERGY STAR industrial focus for pulp and paper mills PPIC 2007 panel

Journal Article IEEE Conference Record of Annual Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Conference · December 1, 2007 This panel will discuss the US Environmental Protection Agency's ENERGY STAR program current initiative with Pulp and Paper Companies. The presentation will provide background on how ENERGY STAR works with industrial sectors, development of a plant-level e ... Full text Cite

Modeling of industrial energy consumption: An introduction and context

Journal Article Energy Economics · July 1, 2007 Industrial energy accounts for roughly one third of total global energy consumption, and is expected to continue to use a similar share in the foreseeable future. However, this is one of the hardest end-uses to analyze, model and forecast. The reasons for ... Full text Cite

Motivating auto manufacturing energy efficiency through performance-based indicators

Journal Article SAE Technical Papers · January 1, 2006 Organizations that implement strategic energy management programs undertake a set of activities that, if carried out properly, have the potential to deliver sustained energy savings. One key management opportunity is determining an appropriate level of ene ... Full text Cite

Measuring plant level energy efficiency when production activities are not homogeneous: The ENERGY STAR energy performance indicator

Journal Article Proceedings ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry · December 1, 2005 Energy efficiency is the comparison of actual energy used to the lowest amount of energy required to perform some level of service or produce some amount of product. Energy intensity, also called specific energy consumption (SEC), is the simple normalizati ... Cite

Motivating industrial energy efficiency through performance-based indicators

Journal Article Proceedings ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry · December 1, 2005 Organizations that implement strategic energy management programs undertake a set of activities that, if carried out properly, have the potential to deliver sustained energy savings. One key management opportunity is determining an appropriate level of ene ... Cite

Multi-agent power market simulation using EMCAS

Journal Article 2005 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting · October 31, 2005 Countries around the world continue to restructure their electricity markets and open them up to competition and private investors in pursuit of economic efficiency and new capital investment. However, the recent volatility exhibited by many restructured p ... Cite

A method for measuring the efficiency gap between average and best practice energy use: The ENERGY STAR industrial energy performance indicator

Journal Article Journal of Industrial Ecology · June 1, 2005 A common feature distinguishing between parametric/statistical models and engineering economics models is that engineering models explicitly represent best practice technologies, whereas parametric/statistical models are typically based on average practice ... Full text Open Access Cite

Advances in Energy Forecasting Models based on Engineering-Economics

Journal Article Annual Review of Energy and Resources · 2004 Cite

A probit model of energy efficiency technology decision making

Journal Article Proceedings ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry · December 1, 2001 The diffusion of energy efficient technologies, or lack thereof, has been the subject of numerous studies. The Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) program conducts assessments of plants in small and medium-sized companies and makes energy efficiency recomme ... Cite

How well do voluntary agreements and programs perform at improving industrial energy efficiency?

Journal Article Proceedings ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry · January 1, 2001 This paper examines evaluation studies of different voluntary agreements and programs and discusses the collective findings on observed performance outcomes. Evidence is drawn from actual evaluations of individual programs implemented in the U.S. and other ... Cite

Impacts of industrial decision making on productivity and energy efficiency: examples from the integrated paper sector

Journal Article Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference · December 1, 1997 Technology cost studies frequently find that 'cost effective' energy efficiency investments are feasible in many industry sectors. At the same time many firms 'fail' to implement these investments. One empirical result of this 'failure' is an observed gap ... Cite

Potential for energy efficient technologies to reduce carbon emissions in the United States: the industrial sector

Journal Article Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference · December 1, 1997 This paper presents an assessment of the possible contribution that an invigorated effort to move energy efficient technology which is commercially available, or near commercialization, into the market could make to reducing greenhouse gas emissions from t ... Cite

Potential for industrial energy efficiency technology to reduce U.S. greenhouse gas emissions

Journal Article Proceedings ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry · December 1, 1997 The industrial portion of a Department of Energy study that assessed the potential for energy-efficient technologies to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in the United States is described. The objectives of this portion of the study we ... Cite

ENERGY INTENSITY IMPROVEMENTS IN STEEL MINIMILLS

Journal Article Contemporary Economic Policy · January 1, 1993 Over the past 20 years, U.S. steel manufacturing has experienced an episode of creative destruction. Iron‐ore based plants closed, and new electric arc furnace (EAF) plants–the “minimills”–opened. The steel industry is an energy intensive segment of manufa ... Full text Cite

Energy Intensity Improvements in Steel Minimills

Journal Article Contemporary Policy Issues · 1993 Cite

Climate change and US energy policy

Journal Article Energy · January 1, 1991 We present an analysis of the ability of the US to achieve significant reductions in CO2 emissions in the future. The emission-reduction objectives are 20% by the year 2000 and 50% by 2010, measured relative to 1985 levels. The economic sectors studied are ... Full text Cite

An integrated acid precipitation policy and energy market model

Journal Article Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference · December 1, 1990 A description is given of the implementation and development of an integrated set of models through the example of the US National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) Integrated Model Set (IMS). This model set has been constructed to provide a co ... Cite

3.4. Set of models

Journal Article Energy · January 1, 1990 The use of disparate and detailed engineering and economic models is often necessary for environmental policy analysis and forecasting. However, to conduct consistent forecasting and policy analysis over all economic sectors these disparate models must be ... Full text Cite