Punishment
Animals can use punishment as a means to change the behavior of others. Punishment can be done for selfish ends with no regard for how the target of the act is affected. On the other extreme, it can benefit others in a society and be motivated by its effects on others. Altruistic punishment, third-party punishment, and norm enforcement are special cases of punishment that can maintain cooperation, and these may not have analogs in animals other than humans. More socially sophisticated forms of punishment will require more flexible and complex cognitive processes. Of particular interest are social (other-regarding) preferences, since these may have allowed the evolution of the large-scale non-kin cooperation seen only in humans. However, little is known about the cognitive mechanisms underlying punishment in other animals.
